History of Ergonomics Essay Example for Free

History of Ergonomics Essay Ergonomics refers to the study of the interaction between humans and the environment. This study is aimed at understanding mechanisms that are necessary in order to improve the working conditions of humans. Such working conditions include health, performance and comfort. The study is intended at enhancing strategies that optimize the performance of humans at work. This implies that it focuses on techniques that are required to restructure office etiquette and procedures in order to improve the overall productivity. However, ergonomics is not necessarily limited to office environment as it also encompasses other fields of human life. In a practical perspective, ergonomics is a science concerned with the design of office equipments and artifacts in order to improve the comfort of workers and improve the overall productivity and effectiveness (Gilmore et al. , 1998). An ergonomicist is interested in the study of the interaction between humans and the tools they use in their working environments. The study of ergonomic includes the design of office equipments and space, and the positioning of switches in control rooms. It additionally includes the study of the interaction of the human behavior and their surrounding. This study originated form Greece where the term ergonomics was derived from ergon meaning work and nomos meaning natural law in Greek. Later on a 19th century sociologist Fredrik Taylor invented the term ‘Scientific management’ to gain maximum results in the factory work. Since then, the practice of ergonomics has tremendously developed over time. As the age of space approaches, new factors continue to emerge such as weightlessness and gravitational force. As the modern world progresses into the future, the field of ergonomics continues to become more sophisticated. In the United States, an army personnel known as Alphonse Chapanis in 1943 explained that plane accidents caused by pilot errors could be significantly be reduced by using a more simple and rational cockpit instead of the common control layout (Jubel, 2007). Institutional ergonomics is concerned with the socio-technical aspects of the work environment which refers to the amalgamation of structure, process and organizational strategies. Cognitive ergonomics deals with the psychological perspectives of the workplace which involves the study of ideas, opinion and memory. In academic viewpoint, the study of ergonomics would comprise the knowledge of psychology, engineering and health science. It is therefore necessary for an ergonomicist to possess a bachelors or masters degree in these disciplines. The practice of ergonomics can find use in several aspects of human life such as workplace, home setting, education and sports. The practical study of ergonomics involves the design of working equipments such as computer chairs or keyboards. Other ergonomic discipline involves the study of the environment of the world as is referred to as quantum ergonomics (Gilmore et al. 1998). History of ergonomics In the United States, the field of ergonomic is believed to have originated during the period of the Second World War (Wickens Hollands, 2000), even though developments that led to its inception can be traced back to the 20th century. Before the Second World War, the main focus of the work place was designing humans to adapt to the machines used at work basically referred to trial and error method as opposed to designing the machines used at work to match the requirements of humans. This can be observed form the study conducted by Taylor in which the selection criteria, time and motion studies, training and work rest programs were examined (Taylor, 1911). This study of time and motions was expounded by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (Gilbreth Gilbreth, 1917). Majority of the ergonomic developments were necessitated by military requirements. With the commencement of the First World War, which was the first conflict where airplane was used in combat, there emerged the need to adequately train pilots new mechanisms of war. This necessitated the development of new aviation technologies based on psychology. In addition these trends prompted the emergence of aeromedical research studies. Even though progress was made during this period, the momentum for developing and exploring the discipline further was no achieved since there was lack of vital technological advancements and personnel due to the ongoing Second World War (Meister, 1999). The period between the First World War and the Second World War recorded a significant decline in research, however, some success were realized during this period. Aeromedical research work did not stop during this time which realized advances in several laboratories built across the United States such as the Brooks Air Force Base located in the city of Texas and the Wright Field situated in Ohio. These laboratories were significant in the development of ergonomics. Their study was focused on identification of attributes of successful pilots and establishing the impacts of environment stressors on the performance and productivity of flights. Furthermore, the study of anthropometry which is a field concerned with the measurement of the human body was considerably employed in designing airplanes during this period. Other researches were also being done in the private sector such as the automobile behavioral studies (Forbes, 1939). The emergence of the Second World War, and its accompanied needs, formed the driving force behind the development of the field of ergonomics. First, the demand of mobilizing and recruiting substantial numbers of people both men and women made it very difficult for individuals to specialize in a particular job. Therefore, there was a shift in focus where individual’s capability was designed in order to reduce the negative impacts of their shortcomings. Secondly, the period of the Second World War witnessed the turning point in terms of technological advances. The rapid development of technology outpaced the capability of human to adapt and offset poor designs. This was particularly observed in airplane accidents experienced by vastly trained pilots as a result of problems witnessed with the configuration of the control systems and the instrument displays (Fitts Jones, 1947). In addition, enemy targets were unfortunately missed by machine controlled radars (Wickens Hollands, 2000). Psychologists were employed to experiment and study these emerging issues by employing laboratory mechanisms in order to solve these problems. As a result, the discipline was ergonomics emerged despite the fact that the people involved in its development failed to realize it during this period (Meister, 1999). The two subsequent decades immediate after the Second World War witnessed a growing military research catalyzed largely by the emergence of the cold war. Military research institutions developed during this war were enlarged and new ones created. The private sectors also continued to develop ergonomic groups mainly in aviation and communication, and digital Industry. The Human Factors Society, a professional body mandated to study ergonomics in the United States was established in 1957 and had an approximate of 90 members then who attended the first inaugural meeting. This name was later abolished in 1992 and replaced with the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Currently, this society boasts of over 4500 people, majority of who are participants in the technical groups established under this society, student bodies and attend the yearly meetings. Beginning in the 1960s, the field of ergonomics continued to expand especially in the previously identified areas. This development expanded into new fields such as computer architecture and software, nuclear weaponry, internet technology among others. In the recent past, new areas of study have emerged which includes neuroergonomics and nanoergonomics (Jubel, 2007). Conclusion A persistent premise that has been developed over several decades is the ever increasing center of influence that ergonomics has attempted to encompass, as technological advances continue to emerge. What simply began as a mere detachment of experimental psychology focusing on the interaction and relationship of people with machines in the work place has tremendously expanded to cover almost all aspects of interaction of individuals and their environment. Several researchers have hypothesized about the future of human factors and ergonomics. With the speedy technological advances in such areas as biotechnology and nanotechnology, it would be very exciting to speculate the emerging problems that ergonomics would be called upon to solve in the future (Vicente, 2008). In the today’s modern world, as it was the case during its inception, human factors and ergonomics has still remained a multi disciplinary field of study. In the United States for instance, this discipline has expanded from behavioral sciences including empirical psychology, and some engineering fields of study. Among the countries in the European block, the discipline of human factors and ergonomics has found its stronghold in physical science disciplines such as human physiology. Currently, people from diverse educational backgrounds and disciplines varying from physiology, engineering and psychology have focused their exclusive skills and knowledge in the study of the interaction and relationship of people with systems.

Definition Essay †Defining the Soul of Man -- Definition Essays

Definition Essay – Defining the Soul of Man "Soul" has, historically, always been tied up with morality and religious dogma, and I believe modern neuropsychology and psychobiology has effectively refuted any scientific basis for a "Soul." To state as fact, "The soul exists," one must first socratically define Soul. More on this later: Soul, or Consciousness, is, without a doubt, tied up within the billions of curious things called synapses and cells, deep inside the brain. There are cases of people without consciousness, without the all important "I." Usually this happens through the onset of a coma, or sometimes the hippocampus is damaged. (which is where short-term memory, a necessary component of consciousness, is located.) These people do not function properly, and are unaware of themselves. (this is very difficult for us to comprehend, as we are self-aware, and so cannot place ourselves in an antithetical position.) Upon death, all brain waves, all mental capacities, and all memories are forever lost. These things are all, again without a scientific doubt, stored in the brain-cells, where they are continually accessed when the brain is alive. But with the onset of death, (which is always and without fail the death of the brain,) these things become locked away in the tiny vaults of a billion cells, never to be accessed again. But this does not irrefutably destroy the belief in Soul. It is much more complex, which is unnerving because a thorough explanation demands numerous paragraphs. There are two major religious beliefs on the soul, and though they may seem diametrically opposed, we must remember that our ideas on the soul exist only because of the conditioned acceptance of these religiou... ...ything that exists is energy, (as is the case), then we undeniably have a "soul." But not in the conscious, creative, spiritual sense, only in a semantic sense. Since consciousness is inextricably linked with soul, and we are only conscious while in our bodies, the "immortal soul" theory breaks down. How do we know it is immortal? Support that. Give empirical evidence for it. You can't, so why believe in something that has no support, aside from an old dogma that has been contradicted a thousand times by science and empirical evidence? But, as I said, if "Soul" means nothing more than "Energy," than we have a soul. But the moment "Soul" means anything else, science refutes it. Works Cited Masson, Jeffrey. "When Animals Weep." New York, Delacorte Press, 1995 De Wall, Franz. "Chimpanzee Politics." John Hopkins University Press, 1989.

The Potato And Its Societal Effects Essay -- Essays Papers

The Potato And Its Societal Effects The potato had a great effect in Europe during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. The potato was a part of the Agricultural Revolution that took place during this time. The Agricultural Revolution not only had a great impact on agriculture, but society as well. This revolution caused an increase in population. J.G. Hawkes, author of The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity, and Genetic Resources, notes that the "potato [was] brought to Spain about 1570 by Spanish explorers who discovered it in South America. The potato was grown in the country of Chile. Hawkes also asserts that the potato was most likely brought to England around 1590. However, Redcliffe Salaman, author of The History and Social Influence of the Potato, explains that "the potato was a luxury food in England until the middle of the seventeenth century" (445). The potato helped to revolutionize society. During the eighteenth century the working class of England could not afford bread. Bread prices rose dramatically, but workers wages remained low. This caused a great deal of disease and malnutrition within the working class in England. Salaman notes that "the potato was mainly responsible for remedying this condition amongst the working classes of the country" (435). The potato was used as a substitute for bread because there was a shortage of wheat. The potato helped England to survive a shortage of wheat and bread. The Western Heritage Brief Edition textbook explains that with the potato, "a single acre of land could produce enough potatoes to feed a peasant family for an entire year" (381-82). Salaman offered the evidence of esteemed economist Adam Smith who said, "one acre land under potatoes would yield... ... it was and could not afford food. Potatoes had been the primary source of food for seventy percent of the Irish people. This Famine changed Ireland socially and culturally in many ways. Works Cited - Food and Drink in History: Selections from the Annales. Vol. 5. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1979. 5 vols. - Hawkes, J.G. The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity, and Genetic Resources. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1990.. - Salaman, Redcliffe. The History and Social Influence of the Potato. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. - Szabo, Liz. "Interpreting the Irish Famine, 1846-1850." Liz Szabo’s Home Page. http://avery.med.virginia.edu/~eas5e/Irish/Famine.html (25 March 1998). - The Western Heritage Brief Edition. Vol. 2. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1996. 2 vols.

Dining in vs. Dinging Out

Informative Speech Dining Out VS. Dining In INTRODUCTION I. Attention getter/relevance: The Price of food has TRIPLED, Which results in the price of fast food has double just form the past two years. II. Establish Credibility: I have gained knowledge and tips on how to save money by cooking your meals at home by doing so you can save over a 1000$ a month. III. Thesis Statement: By the end of my presentation, you will have the knowledge to cut the cost of food and you will think twice before you visit your local fast food restraint. IV.Preview: The focus of my speech is to give you pointers on how to cut the cost of food, and getting a home cook meal in a convenient amount of time. BODY I: First (signpost), why is preparing food at home less expensive then dining out. The cost of fast food has double in the past two years. A today's economy has changed, meaning that all living expenses like rent food and gas prices has gone up as well. b. Studies has shown that dining out three times a week for a family of four can cost up to 400$. c. Money can be saved by cutting back on dining out and fast food by simply cooking from home. I. 2.Second (signpost) the main reasons why people dining out because of their busy life styles. a. There are many adults that work over 40 hours a week, or has resign back in school or some are doing both all while supporting there families. b. Most people way of thinking is it’s much easier to buy per pared food rather than slave over a hot stove daily. c. Little do they know it’s a lot of things you can cook from home with in convenient amount of time. Transition: Let’s review home cooked meals are cheaper than dining out every night. When you prepare your food from home, your relocked to save over a 1000$ monthly.There are meals that you can prepare at home in a convenient amount of time. II. Continue following format for remainder of main points†¦ CONCLUSION I. Signal/summarize main points: because of today's e conomy living expenses like rent food and gas prices has gone up. Preparing food at home less expensive then dining out. II. Thesis statement/Relate to introduction: Now that you know more information on how to save money and time by cooking a prepped meal at home, I hope that you take what you learned and put it into use. I promise you want be sorry.

Beowulf Essay

English 1001 Beowulf Essay The element of religious tension is common in Anglo-Saxon writings, but a pagan story with a Christian narrator is unusual. â€Å"Much of the poem’s narrative intervention reveals that the poet’s culture was different from that of his ancestors† and also that of his characters (Watson). There are many different perceptions to the reasons why the author wrote Beowulf. The best answer, in my opinion, was that the author was creating a magical and intriguing story that had an underlying theme to it.Christianity was a newly introduced religion to the western Europeans at the time and I believe that someone would have written about it, or at least the conflicts that came with it. This is just a background in which time period the story was told, even more evidence to this interpretation is buried in the actual text. Though still an old pagan story, Beowulf was told by a Christian poet. People believe the epic Beowulf is a story full of pagan tradition. However, Beowulf is really a Christian-based story, in which Christianity prevails. Nature is accommodating; death and fate are controllable; man can reconcile with the world; and the main character, a hero and representative of good, triumphs over evil and does not fail in the end† (Perrello). The way the author incorporated many side notes, of what seemed to be other tales told at the time that may not have ever been saved like this one, was an amazing mystery for our present day historians to try and solve. The beginning of the story is where we find our first sign of Christianity, as the poem goes, â€Å"Afterward a boy-child was born to Shield, a cub in the yard, a comfort sent by God to that nation† (Beowulf 12-14).This child was a blessing for this tribe and was the uprising of their downfall and this is where we see that first conflict between the Heroic Code and Christianity. Complete polar opposites are the two, favoring blood- shed and vengeance, family, and praising the king who led them into battle. Christianity on the other hand is all about showing one another kindness and grace. There must have been confusion when these tribes were first introduced to this way of life. But the more and more these stories of God were told, people’s lives changed and they started to be moved.It’s the idea of God being the creator of the earth that we see next, â€Å"the clear song of a skilled poet telling with mastery of man’s beginnings, how the Almighty had made the earth a gleaming plain girdled with waters† (Beowulf 90-93). Aside from showing that God was creator of all earth, we find that repentance is taking place, â€Å"But blessed is he who after death can approach the Lord and find friendship in the Father’s embrace† (Beowulf 186-188). They were unfamiliar with the Lord and had their many other gods to go to, to seek help for different things.Then they started seeking help from the Lord, who in return gives them calm waters to safely travel back home and the people are extremely grateful and moved by his presence in their lives. In the end, there was a great purpose behind the composition of this difficult and complex storyline. It was in a time of life where everything was done the people’s way. They were reluctant at first when hearing about God but soon saw what he was capable of and ended up following him. Beowulf's claim to kingship is a matter of his military prowess as much as it is by birth.We also learn that what we consider virtues today were not considered at the time. Celibacy, or even monogamy was not of any interest to the Anglo Saxons. It was very acceptable for warriors to have relationships with multiple partners. Also, humility and modesty was seen as a flaw. Not only were heroes expected to be physically brave, strong, and victorious, they were expected to brag about it. A warrior was meant to succeed. Not only to win, but to triumph. The ideal was to have one's stories live on in epic poems, and the only way to assure that was to make sure people knew of one's deeds.It also suggests a bit of the Anglo-Saxon structure. The fact that â€Å"the main action occurs in the Mead Hall, and that people sleep there, shows the importance of this central building† (Bloom). The Beowulf that we read today is unlike the Beowulf with which the first Anglo-Saxon audiences were familiar. Beowulf can be considered â€Å"one of the most compelling stories in the English language†, and most certainly is considered the first English masterpiece to be written (Bloom). â€Å"Originally the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian invaders experienced a large-scale conversion to Christianity at the end of the sixth century† (Perrello).Beowulf is a hero, representing courage, concern for his own people as well as foreign people, and pride. However, this novel shows a lot of controversy. Beowulf is filled with Christian teachings, cu lture, and pagan tradition. The values of the Anglo-Saxons were mainly their faith and their success as a warrior. In Beowulf, warriors were expected to create a self-image of fame. Being a warrior required winning. You had to die an honorable death if you were the loser. Only the best warriors went to Valhalla. They always thought God was in control of fate and nobody can change it because all the decisions have been made.The values of the Anglo-Saxon people didn’t vary along a wide range. They all believed in the same thing, thought the same thing, honored the same people, and stood for who they were as people. â€Å"Nature is accommodating, and the forces of death are controllable. Fate is neither blind, nor random in its choice of victims; rather, fate is likewise dependent on certain criteria, such as the character of the person whom is experiencing fate† (Johnson 18). Their destiny was chosen for them by God and there was nothing they could do to change that.Beow ulf follows the virtues most important to the Anglo-Saxon culture being as their religion, militaristic nature, and values. Beowulf is also a prime example of an Anglo-Saxon literary work. â€Å"The Anglo-Saxon era was defined by a heroic code found in the people of that culture† (Johnson 19). This was exemplified through qualities such as bravery, honor, and strength. In Beowulf, the character of Beowulf depicts an Anglo-Saxon warrior traveling lands and fighting fierce monsters to glorify himself and achieve his ultimate goal of fame. Works Cited â€Å"Beowulf†. The Norton Anthology: English Literature.Ed. Stephen Greenblatt. 8th Ed. New York: Norton, 2006. 26-97. Print Bloom, Harold. â€Å"Background to Beowulf†. Bloom’s Literary Reference Online. Chelsea House Publishing, 2008. Web. 5 Feb. 2012. Johnson, David and Elaine Treharne, eds. Readings in Medieval Texts: Interpreting Old and Middle English Literature. NY: Oxford University Press, 2005. Perrel lo, Tony. â€Å"Religion in Beowulf†. Bloom’s Literary Reference Online. McClinton- Temple. 2011. Web. 5 Feb. 2012. Watson, Robert. â€Å"Beowulf†. Bloom’s Literary Reference Online. The Facts on File Conpanion to British Poetry, 2009. Web. 4 Feb. 2012 Beowulf Essay James Robinson 3/18/13 English 12 Beowulf Argument In the poem Beowulf it has been argued whether or not Beowulf shows pagan or Christian values or even both. however if one reads the poem and analysis closely you can see that Beowulf upholds both Christian and pagan values. The bravery and courage that Beowulf became so famous for shows his heroic and pagan values however he also shows Christian values by protecting and treating all of his people equally and by fighting the dragon alone and giving the gold to the people even if he did survive the final battle with the dragon.The dragon that Beowulf fights to the death at the end of the poem shows Beowulf's Christian values because Beowulf agrees to fight the dragon by himself as a selfish act of bravery and love for his people and men. Beowulf tell his men not to help him because he knows the danger he must face and he knows it could be his last battle and doesn't want to put any of his men in danger. In Ogilvy's Beowulf's Heroic de ath Ogilvy agrees that Beowulf fights the dragon alone â€Å"in sake of his men. Beowulf also tells his people not to bury the dragons treasure with him if he dies but to instead give it back to the people. This shows Beowulf compassion and kindness towards his people. If Beowulf only showed Pagan values then he would not have fought the dragon alone and he would have kept the treasure for himself to help better his glory and fame . However Beowulf also shows his pagan values because he boast about killing Grendel which a true Christian would not boast about killing anyone.Beowulf also shows Pagan values because he does his carries out his duty as king to protect the people even though it means his death which a true pagan hero would do. He also tells his men to divide the treasure between the people if he does not survive the battle between the dragon because Pagans believed in gift giving and gold sharing as part of their culture. In Goldsmith's The corruption of Beowulf goldsmit h agrees that Beowulf shows his pagan values of bravery, strength and duty as a king â€Å"his motives where arrogant elf-confidence, and if there is added to it a desire for gain, the hero's bold action is spiritually perilous. Overall this shows Beowulf Pagan values along with his Christian values and how there uphold. The overall understanding of Beowulf is that it could be argued either way of the Pagan and Christian values. However Beowulf really shows us both Pagan and Christian values you just have to analyze the reading for traits that show both the Pagan and Christian values of Beowulf.

Who Won the Civil War: North or South

For the south it was nearly impossible to win the war . The north had many advantageson the south, which created a large difference in the outcome of the Civil War. The North had a bigger population, better leadership, and Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was a leader of the union, and led them to many great victories with his decision making on generals to lead the Union. The north had many plans to shut down the south, though they often took longer than what was expected of them, so many of them were stopped by generals or were figured out by the south.The south came out fighting Fort Sumpter and Bull Run. The advantages that the south had was that all of the battles were in the south and numbers of people who actually wanted to fight for the south was much higher than the soldiers of the north. The south was fighting to keep their way of life, slavery. The north wanted a new constitution and to obliterate the confederacy. Most of the time the north had better in terms of generals, but not always. The north had good generals, but they also had bad ones.The bad ones were either too scared to fight, or didn't fight fast enough. Ulysses S. Grant was the general that gave the Union the greatest victories. He fought long and hard. He would do anything he possible could to win. The South had a very slim chance to win with this man in charge. The north had more victories and advantages in the war than the south. The durastic effects the south underwent caused them to crumble. Some people say the north won, and some say the south won. The north did everything possible to win the war, and the south could never get anything out of it.

Market Share and Business Revenues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Market Share and Business Revenues - Essay Example The essay "Market Share and Business Revenues" talks about market share and business revenues that are stable based on the diverse successions in the industry. It will be an advantage to the company if they charge a greater cost to their products or by putting in mind that having a bigger market share will yield more company gains.The position of market shares shows companies gain during two different stages in the macroeconomic environment. The outcomes point to that the common of the relationship between MS and BP is established, but the set of major tactical factors are the cause of the differences between MS and BP. Companies benefit from the vast market share that able them to illustrate their product in order to catch the attention and loyalty of their consumers. Large market share is anticipated to give favorable great profit, through providing the companies some shares according to the differentiation of their product, this will allow these companies to join the oligopolistic organization that is strong enough to have a significant impact to some dual limitation of production, by growing the company’s negotiation control in this oligopoly. However, the company’s profit depends on the effectiveness and efficient implementation of strategic operations management in such a way that the customers will be able to pay off the production exceeds thus maximizing the production system of the organization. These operations approach likewise provides opportunities for enhancing product value.